Abbreviations 17
1 General Introduction 19
1.1 Research Background 19
1.2 Research Objectives 20
1.2.1 United Nations 20
1.2.2 International Labour Organization 20
1.2.3 Council of Europe 21
1.2.4 Research Sub-questions 22
1.3 Research Structure and Methodology 22
1.3.1 First Research Stage 22
1.3.2 Second Research Stage 22
1.3.3 Third Research Stage 24
1.4 Definitions 24
2 ‘Inmate Workers’ Labour and Social Security Rights: A Worldwide View 29
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Imprisonment 30
2.2.1 Objectives of Imprisonment 31
2.2.2 The Punitive Role of Imprisonment 32
2.2.3 Prison Administration 33
2.2.4 Contemporary Principles of Imprisonment 35
2.2.4.1 Minimum Restrictions Principle 35
2.2.4.2 Normalization Principle 35
2.3 Prison Work 37
2.3.1 Nature of Prison Work 37
2.3.2 Roles of Prison Work 37
2.3.2.1 Reintegration Effect 38
2.3.2.2 Discipline and Surveillance 40
2.3.2.3 Financial Profits 41
2.3.3 Modern Objective and Principles of Prison Work 44
2.3.3.1 Normalization of Working Conditions 45
2.3.3.2 Orientation to Market Demand 47
2.3.3.3 Development of Personal Skills 48
2.4 Current Industrial Prison System 48
2.4.1 Organization of Prison Industry 50
2.4.2 Nature of Prisoners’ Work 52
2.4.3 Types of Prison Employment 53
2.4.3.1 State Use of Prison Labour 53
2.4.3.2 Private Use of Prison Labour: A Mainstream Mode 53
2.4.3.3 Cooperative Work 55
2.4.3.4 Individual Work 55
2.4.4 Types of Contract-Out System 55
2.4.5 Private Use of Prison Labour 56
2.5 Employment of Inmate Workers in Practice 58
2.5.1 Employment Status of Inmate Workers 58
2.5.2 Labour Rights 59
2.5.2.1 Free Choice of Employment 59
2.5.2.2 Fair Labour Remuneration 60
2.5.2.3 Safe and Healthy Working Conditions 61
2.5.2.4 Reasonable Working Time and Rest 62
2.5.2.5 Vocational Training 62
2.5.3 Social Security Rights 63
2.5.3.1 Sickness and Invalidity Benefits 64
2.5.3.2 Unemployment Benefits 65
2.5.3.3 Employment Injury Benefits 65
2.5.3.4 Old-Age Benefits 66
2.6 Causes of Insufficient Protection of Prison Work 68
2.6.1 Prejudice towards Prisoners 69
2.6.2 Obstacles Resulting from Imprisonment Itself 69
2.6.3 Low Productivity of Prison Industry 69
2.6.4 Conflict of Interests between Prison and Prisoners 70
2.6.5 Demand of Prison Rehabilitation Activities 70
2.7 Justification for Protecting Prisoners’ Labour 71
2.7.1 Considerations from the Effective Penal Administration Perspective 71
2.7.1.1 Fostering Prisoners’ Rehabilitation 71
2.7.1.2 Response to Exploitation of Prison Labour 72
2.7.2 Considerations from the Perspective of a Positive Contribution to Society 73
2.7.2.1 Contribution to the National Economy 73
2.7.2.2 Public Recognition of Prisoners’ Labour 74
2.7.2.3 Improvement of Prison Industry Productivity 74
2.7.2.4 Elimination of Unfair Competition with Free Workers 75
2.7.3 Considerations from the Perspective of an Ideal Human Rights Protection 75
2.7.3.1 Internationalization of Prisoners’ Human Rights Protection 75
2.7.3.2 Realization of Humanist Ideals 76
2.8 Conclusion 76
3 United Nations 79
3.1 Introduction 79
3.2 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 80
3.2.1 Prisoners and Labour Rights 80
3.2.2 Prisoners and Social Security Rights 82
3.2.3 Prisoners and the Right to Equal Treatment 83
3.3 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 85
3.3.1 Prisoners and Labour Rights 86
3.3.2 Prisoners and Social Security Rights 87
3.3.3 Prisoners and the Right to Equal Treatment 87
3.4 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 91
3.4.1 Prisoners and Labour Rights 91
3.4.2 Prisoners and Social Security Rights 93
3.4.3 Prisoners and the Right to Equal Treatment 93
3.5 UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (2015 Nelson Mandela Rules) 95
3.5.1 Prisoners and Labour Rights 97
3.5.1.1 Choice of Employment 97
3.5.1.2 Labour Remuneration 98
3.5.1.3 Safe and Healthy Working Conditions 101
3.5.1.4 Working Hours and Vacation 101
3.5.1.5 Vocational Training 102
3.5.2 Prisoners and Social Security Rights 103
3.5.2.1 Employment Injury Benefits 103
3.5.2.2 Other Social Security Benefits 103
3.6 Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners 104
3.6.1 Prisoners Retain Human Rights 104
3.6.2 Prisoners Should Have Access to Remunerated Employment 104
3.7 The UN Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of Their Liberty 105
3.7.1 Choice of Employment 106
3.7.2 Remuneration 106
3.7.3 Vocational Training 107
3.8 Conclusion 108
4 International Labour Organization 113
4.1 Introduction 113
4.2 The Forced Labour Convention 114
4.2.1 Prohibition of Forced Labour 114
4.2.2 Definition of Forced Labour 114
4.2.2.1 Work or Service 115
4.2.2.2 Menace of Any Penalty 116
4.2.2.3 Involuntary Will 117
4.2.3 Exceptions to the Prohibition of Forced Labour Law 118
4.2.3.1 Consequence of a Conviction in a Court of Law 118
4.2.3.2 Supervision and Control of a Public Authority 119
4.2.3.3 Not Hired to or Placed at the Disposal of Private Individuals, Companies or Associations 119
4.2.4 Conditions for the Private Use of Prison Labour 121
4.2.5 Indicators of a Free Relationship 123
4.2.5.1 Free Consent 123
4.2.5.2 Full Employment Relationship 124
4.2.5.3 Equal Employment Conditions 125
4.2.6 Evaluation 126
4.2.6.1 Strengths 127
4.2.6.2 Weaknesses 127
4.2.6.3 Ratification and Current Status of Convention 29 129
4.3 The Protocol to the Forced Labour Convention 129
4.3.1 Strengthening the Combat against Forced Labour 130
4.3.2 Measures to Prevent and Eliminate Forced Labour 130
4.3.3 Appropriate Remedies 132
4.4 Forced Labour (Supplementary Measures) Recommendation 132
4.5 The Abolition of Forced Labour Convention 134
4.6 Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952 136
4.7 Conclusion 137
5 Council of Europe 141
5.1 Introduction 141
5.2 European Social Charter and the Revised European Social Charter 142
5.2.1 Prisoners and Labour Rights 143
5.2.1.1 Free Choice of Employment 143
5.2.1.2 Labour Remuneration 144
5.2.1.3 Health and Safety at Work 145
5.2.1.4 Reasonable Working Hours 146
5.2.1.5 Vocational Training 146
5.2.2 Prisoners and Social Security Rights 146
5.2.3 Prisoners and the Right to Equal Treatment 148
5.3 European Code of Social Security 150
5.3.1 Unemployment Benefits 151
5.3.1.1 Personal Scope 151
5.3.1.2 Definition of the Covered Social Risk 152
5.3.1.3 Qualifying Periods to Be Fulfilled 152
5.3.2 Old-Age Benefits 153
5.3.2.1 Personal Scope 153
5.3.2.2 Definition of the Covered Social Risk 153
5.3.2.3 Qualifying Periods to Be Fulfilled 154
5.3.3 Employment Injury Benefits 154
5.3.3.1 Personal Scope 154
5.3.3.2 Definition of the Covered Social Risk 155
5.3.3.3 Qualifying Periods to Be Fulfilled 155
5.3.4 Sickness Benefits 155
5.3.4.1 Personal Scope 155
5.3.4.2 Definition of the Covered Social Risk 156
5.3.4.3 Qualifying Periods to Be Fulfilled 156
5.3.5 Invalidity Benefits 157
5.3.5.1 Personal Scope 157
5.3.5.2 Definition of the Covered Social Risk 158
5.3.5.3 Qualifying Periods to Be Fulfilled 158
5.3.6 Prisoners and the Right to Equal Treatment 159
5.4 European Convention on Human Rights 161
5.4.1 Prohibition of Forced Labour 162
5.4.1.1 Definition of Forced Labour 162
5.4.1.2 Prison Labour and Forced Labour 163
5.4.2 Social Security Rights 165
5.4.2.1 Prohibition of Forced Labour and Entitlement to Social Security Benefits 165
5.4.2.2 Right to Peaceful Enjoyment of Social Security Benefits 166
5.4.3 Prohibition of Discrimination 167
5.5 The 2006 European Prison Rules 172
5.5.1 Labour Rights 172
5.5.1.1 Free Choice of Employment 173
5.5.1.2 Labour Remuneration 175
5.5.1.3 Health and Safety at Work and Reasonable Working Hours 175
5.5.1.4 Vocational Training 176
5.5.2 Social Security Rights 176
5.6 Recommendation on the Management of Life-Sentence and Other Long-Term Prisoners 177
5.7 Resolution (62)2 on Electoral, Civil and Social Rights of Prisoners 178
5.8 The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 179
5.9 Conclusion 181
6 Comparative Analysis 185
6.1 Introduction 185
6.2 Comparative Analysis of International and European Legal Standards on Prisoners’ Labour and Social Security Rights 185
6.2.1 Prison Labour 186
6.2.1.1 Relationship between Prison Labour and Forced Labour 186
6.2.1.2 Rehabilitation Role of Prison Work 191
6.2.2 Labour Rights 192
6.2.2.1 Free Choice of Employment 193
6.2.2.2 Fair Labour Remuneration 195
6.2.2.3 Safe and Healthy Working Conditions 198
6.2.2.4 Reasonable Working Time and Rest 199
6.2.2.5 Vocational Training 199
6.2.3 Social Security Rights 201
6.2.3.1 General Right to Social Security Benefits 201
6.2.3.2 Employment Injury Benefits 204
6.2.3.3 Payment of Benefits during Imprisonment 205
6.3 Conclusion 206
7 General Conclusion 207
7.1 Necessity of Legal Protection for Prison Work and Inmate Workers 207
7.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Legislative Approaches in the Analysed Legal Regimes 208
7.3 Time for Fresh Thinking on the Jurisdiction Issue 210
7.3.1 Legal Value of Soft Laws 210
7.3.2 Legal Value of Commentaries from Monitoring Bodies 211
7.4 A Universally Acceptable Set of Standards and Rules 212
Tables of international legal provisions concerning prison labour 215
Bibliography 219
Het groene gras 241
